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Humanity is constantly seeking innovative solutions in the ongoing battle against disease. Scientists hope to tip the scales in favor of therapeutic benefits—outweighing the inherent risks—by enhancing treatment efficacy, improving diagnostic accuracy, and minimizing collateral damage to healthy tissues. In recent years, this hope has become more of a reality with technological advancements in areas like nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology has made significant strides since research investments increased in the 2000s. What began as theoretical science burgeoned into a transformative technology that leverages the unique properties of materials at the nanoscale to drive innovation and improvement across various sectors, including healthcare.
The advancement of nanotechnology has heralded a new era in medicine, offering unprecedented precision and versatility in combating a wide range of illnesses and providing new prospects in disease recognition and treatment. Medical advancements using nanotechnology include targeted drug delivery, improved diagnostics, and regenerative medicine. Researchers can change how we detect, treat, and prevent diseases by manipulating and controlling matter at the atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale.
Background on Nanotechnology
American physicist and Nobel Prize laureate Richard Feynman proposed the theory of nanotechnology in 1959. In a lecture at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Feynman suggested using machines to create smaller machines “down to the molecular level.” Feynman’s proposal ferried in the era of modern nanotechnology, inviting fellow scientists to challenge the concept. Armored with this progressing knowledge and seemingly limitless capabilities achievable at a nanoscale, the 21st century ushered in an increased interest in nanoscience in addition to nanotechnology.
According to the National Nanotechnology Initiative Supplement to the President’s 2023 Budget, the requested research budget for the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was nearly $2 billion, the largest request since the NNI began over two decades ago. Scientific breakthroughs in this area of nanoscale science, medicine, and technology are achieved “to make human life easier and more comfortable.”
Nanotechnology in Disease Identification and Treatment
Nanoscale materials and devices provide unprecedented precision in detecting and combating diseases. Nanoscale sensors and imaging agents, such as quantum dots and magnetic nanoparticles, offer exceptional sensitivity and specificity in detecting biomarkers symptomatic of different diseases. These nanomaterials can be engineered to bind selectively to target molecules, enabling early detection of conditions like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and infectious diseases.
Advanced imaging techniques like nanoparticle-enhanced MRI and PET scans provide high-resolution images that allow for detailed visualization of disease progression early. Nanosensors can also be integrated into wearable devices or used in point-of-care diagnostics. This early detection is crucial for timely intervention and can significantly improve patient outcomes.
After diagnosis, targeted drug delivery systems improve the therapeutic index of drugs and reduce required dosages and any associated toxicity during treatment. For example, traditional chemotherapy affects both cancerous and healthy cells, leading to severe side effects that can deteriorate a patient’s condition beyond the impact of cancer and lead to an increased incidence of drug resistance. However, nanoparticles can be designed to deliver drugs specifically to cancer cells, minimizing damage to healthy tissues and enhancing treatment efficacy. These nanoparticles are functionalized with ligands that recognize and bind to receptors on cancer cells’ surface, ensuring therapeutic agents’ release directly at the tumor site.
The benefits of utilizing nanotechnology extend beyond cancer treatment, too. Researchers at North Carolina State University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill previously used nanotechnology to help heal damaged hearts, according to a 2018 press release. The rapid response drug-delivery system requires no surgical intervention. Instead, a catheter placed inside the affected blood vessel delivers porous nanogel spheres containing two different medications to the targeted clot. Once the nanogels reach the thrombus, they bind to a substance called fibrin and begin a controlled release of the treatment to dissolve the clot and limit further damage that could impact the heart’s normal function in the long term, such as scarring.
For neurological disorders, targeted drug delivery could enable drugs to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to reach specific regions of the brain affected by diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s. The BBB is a highly selective permeability barrier that protects the brain from harmful substances in the bloodstream, allowing only essential nutrients to pass through. Unfortunately, this protective function also poses a significant challenge for delivering therapeutic agents to the brain.
One study published in Translational Neuroscience and cited by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in 2022 stated that yearly deaths linked to central nervous system (CNS) problems totaled nearly 6.8 million. Out of that number, approximately 1 million people are affected by neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and Parkinson’s disease. Due to the complexity of the brain, though, CNS problems can be challenging to treat, and the BBB prevents 95% of substances that could be used in drug development. This is why CNS medications take longer to develop than non-CNS drugs.
However, targeted drug delivery systems can overcome this challenge with nanoparticles engineered with surface modifications facilitating their transport across the BBB. For example, nanoparticles can be coated with ligands that bind to specific receptors on the endothelial cells of the BBB, allowing for receptor-mediated transport. Once across the BBB, these nanoparticles can release their dosage in a controlled manner at the disease site.
Targeted delivery enhances the efficacy of drugs and reduces systemic side effects, as the therapeutic agents are concentrated in the area of need rather than widely distributed throughout the body or bloodstream. In addition, nanoparticles can be designed to carry multiple therapeutic agents, allowing for combination therapies that can simultaneously address different aspects of neurological or other disorders. For instance, for neurodegenerative diseases, a single nanoparticle could be loaded with a neuroprotective agent to protect neurons from further damage and an anti-inflammatory agent to reduce inflammation in the brain, providing a multifaceted approach to treatment.
Nanotechnology can also be used for real-time monitoring and treatment. Intelligent drug delivery systems can release drugs in response to specific triggers in the body, such as changes in pH or enzyme activity.
Finally, nanotechnology enables the development of multifunctional therapeutic platforms. Nanoparticles, known as theranostics, can be engineered to combine diagnostic and therapeutic functions. These theranostic particles can simultaneously monitor disease markers and deliver therapeutic agents, providing real-time feedback on the treatment’s effectiveness.
An example of theranostics is radiopharmaceuticals, using imaging and selective therapy to treat various cancers. This integration of diagnostics and therapy into a single platform paves the way for personalized medicine, where treatments can be tailored to each patient’s disease profile and monitored continuously for optimal efficacy.
Applying Nanotechnology to Medicine
Targeted drug delivery is a primary R&D focus in modern medicine. The medical application and development of nanoparticles to deliver drugs, heat, light, or other substances to diseased cells for personalized, precise, effective, and less invasive treatments is groundbreaking, significantly improving patient outcomes and quality of life. However, nanotechnology can be used to combat disease in a variety of ways. It has a wide range of applications in medicine, including:
Cancer Treatment
In addition to targeted drug delivery, nanotechnology is used in photothermal and photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment. Nanoparticles can be designed to absorb light and convert it into heat or reactive oxygen species, selectively killing cancer cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissues.
Diagnostic Techniques
According to Forbes, “misdiagnosis is a multidimensional problem,” resulting in 40,000 to 80,000 deaths annually and affecting the recovery of millions of others. The biggest problem is that most symptoms can align with many different diseases. Plus, diagnostic testing is often expensive and unreliable. However, nanotechnology, including “smart” pills and nanobots, shows promise in offering preferable and improved alternatives to inefficient and inconvenient testing methods.
In 2022, researchers at Johns Hopkins University used large-area nanoimprinting lithography to create a sensor capable of detecting COVID-19 and other diseases that can be used in portable devices for faster results. Combined with surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and machine learning, researchers claim the highly accurate (92%) testing device could be made available on mass in disposable chip formats or on rigid or flexible surfaces. In a study describing the sensor, researchers explained its benefits over other forms of testing, stating that its primary advantage is its low maintenance set-up and delivery.
Also, in 2022, an abstract published in Pharmaceutics and posted on the NIH library database discusses using carbon nanotubes (CNTs) as delivery systems to detect cancer cells in the bloodstream. Medical professionals believe this method can be used in simple laboratory tests to provide early detection and subsequent treatment of the harrowing disease.
Antimicrobial Treatments
Nanomaterials with antimicrobial properties, such as silver nanoparticles, are used to develop new antibacterial agents and coatings. These materials can kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, viruses, and fungi, providing new strategies to combat infections, including those caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens.
In March 2024, researchers at the University of Pennsylvania and Stanford University developed sugar-coated gold nanoparticles to image and destroy biofilm or the slimy substance that encases bacteria on teeth and wounded skin. This eliminates the need to surgically debride infections and expose patients to antibiotic use when they have allergies or bacteria that is resistant to traditional medicine.
Gold nanoparticles can also be used alongside infrared light to kill bacteria, improving the cleaning of hospital equipment.
In 2016, researchers at the University of Colorado at Boulder explored ways to use light with quantum dots (20,000 times smaller than a human hair and resembling tiny semiconductors) to combat drug-resistant bacteria like Salmonella, E. Coli, and Staphylococcus. These bacteria infect approximately two million people yearly and kill at least 23,000. The so-called “superbugs” are virtually indestructible, resulting in the need for innovative solutions.
Inflammatory Disease Treatment
Nanotechnology effectively treats inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis. These debilitating conditions involve complex immune responses that can be difficult to manage with conventional therapies. Nanotechnology enables novel therapeutic agents like small interfering RNA (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA) therapies to specifically downregulate pro-inflammatory cytokines and other molecules involved in the inflammatory process. Nanoparticles can protect these nucleic acids from degradation in the bloodstream and facilitate their uptake by immune cells, allowing for precise modulation of the immune response.
Additionally, nanoparticles can be functionalized with ligands that interact with specific immune cell receptors, altering their activity. For example, nanoparticles designed to target macrophages—key players in inflammation—can be used to reprogram these cells from a pro-inflammatory to an anti-inflammatory state. This immune modulation strategy can help restore balance in the immune system and reduce chronic inflammation.
Wound Treatment
What if your body’s energy could speed up the healing process? Researchers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison discovered a way to make that possible using a bandage powered by a nanogenerator. This nanogenerator captures patients’ body energy via natural movements, including breathing. Then, it converts that energy into electric pulses that trigger the bandages’ electrode to create an electric field around the wound. These electric fields quicken wound healing for a more efficient recovery.
Case Western Reserve University researchers took wound healing to the next level, reducing heavy blood loss from traumatic injuries by using nanoparticles to create artificial platelets. According to the researchers, artificial platelets can perform better than natural ones that will quickly deplete.
Regenerative Medicine
Nanomaterials are used to create scaffolds that support the growth and differentiation of cells, aiding in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. These scaffolds can mimic the extracellular matrix, providing a conducive environment for tissue regeneration and repair, particularly useful in treating injuries and degenerative diseases.
Vaccines
Nanoparticles are being explored as adjuvants and delivery systems for vaccines. They can enhance the immune response and improve the stability and delivery of antigens, potentially leading to more effective and long-lasting vaccines.
Vaccine exploration includes nanostructured vaccines based on viral-like particles (VLPs) for viruses like SARS-CoV-2, HPV, hepatitis B, and influenza. Certain COVID-19 vaccines developed by BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna include nanotechnology-based approaches.
Disease Prevention
Nanotechnology can help prevent disease before it happens, meaning patients can avoid sickness and treatment altogether. For example, researchers at the University of Arizona found a way to provide the population with cleaner water. According to Forbes, “Waterborne diseases are one of the most common causes of illness in the world.” However, a paper chip coated in nanoparticles of a fluorescent polymer resembling styrofoam holds promise in clearing our waterways of norovirus. Each particle hosts antibodies to the virus that bind with the virus when coming into contact with affected water drops. The resulting fluorescent effect can be detected by a microscope, reducing the cost and time it takes to discover infected waters.
Challenges of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Life Sciences
Nanotechnology offers tremendous potential but presents challenges that span regulatory, ethical, safety, and technical aspects, necessitating a multidisciplinary approach to overcome them. Because the science behind the use of nanoparticles is still evolving, several unknowns exist, such as the ways in which they can interact with biological systems long term.
Additionally, like artificial intelligence (AI), nanotechnology’s rapid development in medicine outpaces the establishment of appropriate regulatory frameworks. Given their unique properties, traditional safety and efficacy evaluation methods may not be adequate for nanomaterials. Regulatory bodies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) must develop specific guidelines and standards for assessing and approving nanotechnology-based medical products.
Privacy, equity, and consent are some ethical and social issues raised by nanotechnology in medicine. For example, nanodevices capable of continuously monitoring biological parameters might lead to privacy invasion if the data is not properly secured.
Other challenges include technical and manufacturing challenges, environmental impact, public perception and acceptance, disparities in healthcare access, and intellectual property barriers.
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